Structure

In 2009, Jan Koum developed an app intended to make users’ status visible to their contacts. The app was named WhatsApp, a name that sounds like “What’s up?”, a common way people ask about each other’s status. Later, the developers added a messaging function. In the 2010s, the spread of smartphones and mobile internet access allowed people to “connect on the go,”¹ creating the conditions for the rise of Over-The-Top (OTT) mobile messaging services. Unlike traditional Short Message Service (SMS), OTT messaging services generally do not charge a per-message fee and offer enhanced content-sharing features, such as photos, videos, audio files, and GIFs. They also support persistent group chats. These features helped WhatsApp gain widespread popularity and become one of the leading mobile messaging services. ...

On the last day of 2025, I removed half of the accounts I was following on Instagram. About one month before that, on November 18, 2025, the judgment for FTC v. Meta was released. The District Court for the District of Columbia held that Meta is not a monopoly in the market categorized as “Personal Social Networking (PSN).” This ruling reflects a reality where the definition of such a market is becoming obsolete. The court observed a shift from feeds filled with friends’ posts to algorithm-recommended content, which users then share via private messages. ...

Ongoing doctoral research in competition law.

This paper examines the evidentiary structure of antitrust conspiracy claims under Section 1 of the Sherman Act. Written in April 2024. Available upon request.